Lymphocyte proliferative responses in dairy cows supplemented with an immunomodulatory feed additive and administered polyvalent vaccination / [Proliferação de linfócitos em vacas leiteiras suplementadas com um aditivo alimentar imunomodulador e vacinadas com vacina polivalente]

O presente estudo avaliou o efeito da suplementação com OmniGen-AF® na proliferação de linfócitos e títulos de anticorpos após vacinação em bovinos leiteiros. Amostras de sangue periférico foram coletadas de 32 vacas leiteiras para quantificação dos títulos de anticorpos anti-Leptospira, e amostras de sangue periférico de 16 vacas leiteiras foram também coletadas para avaliação da proliferação de linfócitos. Observou-se que a suplementação com OmniGen-AF® aumentou a proliferação basal de linfócitos (sem estímulos) 21 dias após a vacinação (P=0,03), apesar de reduzir a proliferação de linfócitos B quando estimulada com Leptospira borgpetersenii serovar Hardjo inativada pelo calor (P=0,03). Ademais, nenhum efeito da suplementação sobre a proliferação de linfócitos no momento imediatamente anterior à vacinação e nos títulos de anticorpos anti-Leptospira foi encontrado. Além disso, a proliferação de linfócitos estimulada com lipopolissacarídeos foi maior em vacas multíparas que em primíparas 21 dias após a vacinação (P=0,03). Desse modo, o presente estudo demonstra que a suplementação com OmniGen-AF® não afetou de forma robusta a proliferação de linfócitos e os títulos de anticorpos anti-Leptospira após vacinação em vacas leiteiras sadias.(AU)

Evaluation of protection against bovine viral diarrhea virus type 2 after vaccination of the calves with bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 combo inactivated vaccine / Avaliação da proteção contra o vírus da diarreia viral bovina tipo 2 após vacinação de bezerros com vacina combinada inativada do vírus da diarreia viral bovina tipo 1

This study was designed to evaluate the extent of the protection for bovine viral diarrhea virus type 2 (BVDV-2) infection, afforded by vaccination with a combo inactivated vaccine, which contains bovine viral diarrhea virus type 1 (BVDV-1) and infectious bovine rhinotracheitis virus (IBRV). Five 3-4-month-old calves were intramuscularly vaccinated with a single dose of the combo vaccine and boosted with same dose three weeks after the first vaccination, with five mock immunized calves serving as a control group. Twenty-one days after the second vaccination, all calves were challenged with BVDV-2 SX08 strain by spray into nostril. The unvaccinated animals developed typical clinical signs of high rectal temperature, diarrhoea with erosions and a dramatic drop in leukocyte counts. These signs occured markedly less in all vaccinated animals, the rectal temperature, leukopenia and virarmia of which, were significantly less than the mock immunized calves. It can be concluded that vaccination with the combo inactivated vaccine affords cross-protection against clinical effects of a challenge-infection with BVDV-2 SX08 strain, although it was part protection.(AU)

Este estudo foi desenvolvido para avaliar a extensão da proteção contra a infecção pelo vírus da diarréia viral bovina tipo 2 (BVDV-2) através da vacinação com uma vacina combinada inativada contendo o vírus da diarréia viral bovina tipo 1 (BVDV-1) e vírus da rinotraqueíte de bovinos infecciosos (IBRV). Cinco bezerros com 3 a 4 meses de idade foram vacinados via intramuscular com uma dose única da vacina combinada e reforçados com a mesma dose três semanas após a primeira vacinação, com cinco bezerros imunizados em simulação servindo como grupo controle. Vinte e um dias após a segunda vacinação, todos os bezerros foram desafiados com a cepa BVDV-2 SX08 por spray na narina. Os animais não vacinados desenvolveram sinais clínicos típicos, como alta temperatura retal, diarréia com erosões e queda drástica na contagem de leucócitos. Estes sinais tiveram ocorrência significativamente menor em todos os animais vacinados, cuja temperatura retal, leucopenia e virarmia eram significativamente menores do que os bezerros simulados. É possível concluir que a vacinação com a vacina combinada inativada proporciona proteção cruzada contra os efeitos clínicos de uma infecção provocada pela cepa BVDV-2 SX08, embora tenha sido parcialmente protegida.(AU)

Evaluation of a capture antigen ELISA for the characterisation of tetanus vaccines for veterinary use.

We previously developed an ELISA assay for detection of tetanus toxoid antigen in tetanus vaccines for human use. Tetanus vaccines for veterinary use are qualitatively different to those used in humans, often containing a larger number and variety of non-tetanus antigens in the multi-valent products, and adjuvants that are not found in human vaccines. We assessed performance of the capture ELISA with a range of veterinary tetanus vaccines as a first step towards development of an immunoassay as a potential in vivo potency substitute. Nine tetanus vaccines were tested and all produced a good dose response in the ELISA. The shape of the dose response curve for the whole vaccine compared to a matched non-adjuvanted tetanus toxoid antigen was more comparable for vaccines containing a non-aluminium adjuvant than products containing aluminium adjuvants. Elution of the antigen from aluminium adjuvant did not improve the comparability of the dose response curve but did increase the total amount of tetanus antigen available for detection. The ELISA was highly specific for tetanus with no signal obtained for a large number of non-tetanus antigens. These results suggest that a capture ELISA assay can be applied to a control strategy for veterinary tetanus vaccines.

Development and use of a novel in vitro assay for testing of diphtheria toxoid in combination vaccines.

Testing of diphtheria vaccines for routine lot release relies heavily on the use of in vivo potency assays. However, consistency of production is also recognised as an important feature of vaccine manufacture, and in vitro assays are superior to in vivo assays for providing this information. In adsorbed vaccines, antigen and adjuvant are the major components contributing to immunogenicity and are therefore critical factors to be evaluated as part of consistency testing. Here we describe a simple and sensitive Enzyme Linked Immunosorbent Assay (ELISA) which has been developed to quantify diphtheria toxoid antigen in combined vaccine products and can also be used to monitor the degree of adsorption. This assay can be applied to a variety of multi-component vaccines and is robust, specific and highly sensitive, with a limit of quantification of approximately 0.005 Lf/ml. The antigen assay is an excellent test to characterise vaccines and monitor trends in production. For well established vaccines, the antigen assay could be used alongside other in vitro methods to provide a more informative product profile, with the ultimate aim of reducing the requirement for in vivo potency assays and therefore the number of animals required for routine batch release testing.

Vacunas combinadas / Combined vaccines

Las vacunas combinadas son las que contienen antígenosque pertenecen a 2 o más microorganismos; se conocenhace ya 60 años, desde que en 1948 se autorizó la vacunaDTP. La disponibilidad de vacunas combinadas facilitaaumentar el número de antígenos en los calendarios deinmunizaciones sistemáticas, con un menor número deinyecciones y una mayor aceptación por parte del personalsanitario y de la población, y permite obtener mejorescoberturas vacunales. A pesar del importante aumento delnúmero de vacunas sistemáticas administradas a los niños(en los últimos 100 años se ha pasado de 1 a 14 vacunas),la cantidad de componentes antigénicos no sólo no haaumentado, sino que ha disminuido (de 200 en 1903, a 130en 2007), al obtenerse vacunas cada vez más purificadas.El aumento creciente del número de vacunas en loscalendarios de inmunizaciones en los últimos años hahecho progresar la investigación y el desarrollo de vacunas combinadas. A partir de la vacuna trivalente DTP, en las formas DTPe y DTPa, se han desarrollado 2 grupos de vacunas combinadas, y en la actualidad se dispone de tetravalentes, pentavalentes y una hexavalente con DTPa.Hay un tercer grupo de vacunas combinadas en cuyacomposición no está la vacuna DTP. Finalmente, hay quedestacar una vacuna heptavalente, en la que se añade auna de las pentavalentes (DTPe-HB-Hib) las vacunasconjugadas para el meningococo A y C; esta vacuna se hapresentado en marzo de 2007 a la Agencia Europea deMedicamentos para los países del «cinturón de lameningitis»

Combined vaccines contain antigens belonging to two ormore microorganisms; these vaccines have existed for thelast 60 years, ever since the diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis(DTP) vaccine was authorized in 1948. The availability of combined vaccines helps to increase the number of antigens in immunization schedules, with a lower number of injections and greater acceptance by health workers and the general population. Furthermore, these vaccines improve vaccination coverage. Despite the substantial increase in the number of systematic vaccinesadministered to children (increasing in the last 100 years from 1 to 14 vaccines), the quantity of antigeniccomponents has not only not increased but has actuallydecreased (from 200 and 1903 to 130 in 2007) due to theavailability of increasingly purified vaccines. The upward trend in the number of vaccine immunization schedules in the last few years has stimulated research and development into combined vaccines. Based on thetrivalent DTP vaccine, either whole-cell DTP or DTaP, twogroups of combined vaccines have been developed andtetravalent, pentavalent and hexavalent forms arecurrently available with DTPa. There is a third group ofcombined vaccines that does not contain the DTP vaccine.Finally, there is a heptavalent vaccine in which theconjugate vaccines for meningococcus A and C are addedto one of the pentavalent vaccines (whole cell DTP-HBHib); this vaccine was presented in March 2007 to theEuropean Medicines Agency for countries in the meningitisbelt

Nuevos avances en las vacunas frente al Virus del Papiloma Humano (VPH) / New advances in the Human Papillomavirus (HPV) vaccines

Objetivos: Describir la situación actual del cáncer de cérvix, su relación con el Virus del Papiloma Humano (VPH), y conocer el estado actual de las vacunas profilácticas y terapéuticas frente al VPH. Metodología: Se consultaron algunas bases de datos electrónicas (Medline, The Cochrane Library, EMBASE, etc), páginas web (Doyma, National Cancer Institute, etc) y los abstracts de la 21ª Conferencia Internacional del Virus del Papiloma Humano. Epidemiología: La infección por el VPH es la principal causa del cáncer cervical. Éste es el segundo cáncer femenino más frecuente de todo el mundo. Cada año se estima que se producen 470.000 casos nuevos en todo el mundo y 230.000 muertes por esta causa. Vacunas: Se encuentran en estudio tres tipos de vacunas frente al VPH: profilácticas, terapéuticas y combinadas. Las vacunas profilácticas se encuentran en fase III. Los distintos estudios han demostrado que todas ellas son seguras, bien toleradas y altamente inmunógenas, y especialmente, la vacuna bivalente VLPVPH-16/18. Son múltiples las estrategias diseñadas para el desarrollo de vacunas terapéuticas. Algunas de ellas, ya se encuentran en fase I y fase II. Se tratan de vacunas seguras, aunque los resultados sobre su inmunogenicidad no son concluyentes. Por último, las vacunas combinadas (profilácticas-terapéuticas) también se encuentran en fase I y II. Se ha demostrado que son bien toleradas e inmunogénasante la falta de datos sobre la respuesta clínica que desencadena. Con toda probabilidad, las vacunas profilácticas pronto estarán disponibles y con ello se conseguirá reducir significativamente la incidencia de cáncer cervical en todo el mundo

Objetives: To describe cervical cancer epidemiology, its association with human papiloma virus (HPV), and to know the present situation of HPV vaccines. Methods: We consulted some electronic data bases (Medline, The Cochrane Library, EMBASE, etc), web sites from Doyma, National Cancer Institute, etc, and the abstracts of 21ª Papillomavirus Internacional Conference Epidemiology: HPV infection is the main cause of cervical cancer. Cervical cancer is the second malignant tumour. About 470.000 cases of this illness are diagnosed every year and 230.000 women die all over the world. Vaccines: Three types of HPV vaccines are in study: prophylactic, therapeutic and combined. The prophylactic vaccines are in phase III. The different studies have demonstrated that all of the mare sure, well tolerated and highly inmunogenicity, and specially, the vaccine bivalent VLP HPV-16/18.There are multiple strategies designed for the development of therapeutics vaccines. Some of the mare in phase I and phase II. They a sure vaccines, though the results of the inmunogenicity are not conclusive. Finally, the combined (prophylactic - therapeutic)vaccines also are in phase I and II. There has been demonstrated that they are well tolerated and immunogenicity before the lack of information on the clinical response that it unleashes. With all probability, the prophylactic vaccines soon will be available and with it one will manage to reduce significantly the effect of cervical cancer in the whole world

Collaborative study for the validation of serological methods for potency testing of diphtheria toxoid vaccines-part 1.

A collaborative study on the evaluation of an alternative functional assay, the Vero cell method, to the Ph. Eur. in vivo challenge procedures for potency determination of diphtheria toxoid in 6 different combined vaccines was initiated in January 2001. The study was an extension of a previous study for the validation of serological methods for potency testing of tetanus toxoid vaccines for human use. To allow interim evaluation of test results and to monitor study progress, the project was divided into three consecutive phases. The results of Phase I and II studies are presented in this report. Pre-validation (Phase I) study, performed in two laboratories, indicated that comparable diphtheria potency estimates were obtained in the Ph. Eur. direct intradermal challenge assay in guinea pigs, in Vero cell assay and in indirect ELISA for five vaccines of different potencies (range of estimates: ca. 20-200 IU/ml). The correlation coefficients between the challenge assay and the Vero cell assay corresponded to those between the challenge assay and ELISA, confirming that the antibodies play an important role in protection and that predominantly protective/neutralising antibodies are present in guinea pigs, at the time point investigated. It was observed, for Vero cell assays, that about 16-35 (9-28 in Phase II study) fold lower titre of individual serum samples were obtained when using equine, rather than guinea pig reference serum. The study also provided preliminary information that sera from the same guinea pigs may be used for potency determination of both diphtheria and tetanus toxoid components of vaccines. In Phase II, another five laboratories analysed a subset of the vaccines included in Phase I study plus an additional vaccine. Four laboratories performed the lethal challenge assay and one laboratory carried out the intradermal challenge assay. All laboratories also performed the Vero cell assay and both ELISA for diphtheria antitoxin and ELISA for tetanus antitoxin. One laboratory also performed the tetanus ToBI assay. The correlation coefficient (r) between Vero cell assay and ELISA for diphtheria antitoxin ranged from 0.76 to 0.91 in the different laboratories. The correlation between diphtheria serological assays and challenge assays were confirmed satisfactory as ca. 90 per cent of serum-estimates lead to correct prediction of mortality. All laboratories had identical rankings of the vaccines in all serological assays and in the valid challenge assays. The ranking order was identical to assumed/provided potency for the highest and the lowest vaccine. Two of the vaccines had an inversion in some assays and laboratories. As these two vaccines have almost identical potencies in all assays, these inversions are not significant. As the vaccine doses were optimised for the diphtheria component, serum anti-tetanus toxoid/toxin activities varied widely between the vaccines, making it questionable to apply a parallel line model to calculate exact potencies. However, the dose levels used showed a clear regression and good linearity in general. DTaP vaccines containing the IPV component did not always meet the present Ph. Eur. requirements in the serological assays. It should be further investigated in the Phase III study if this is a general feature of such combined vaccines. Preliminary investigations on samples from two laboratories indicate that the neutralising activity of type 1, 2 and 3 polioviruses can also be detected, in a dose-dependent way. Further studies are in progress with serum samples from other laboratories. In the light of results obtained in the first two phases, it is recommended to proceed with Phase III study to investigate reliability of the in vitro assays. In Phase III it will also be further investigated whether the serological assays for D and T components are suitable for the control of the multi-component vaccines currently marketed in Europe.

Collaborative study for the validation of serological methods for potency testing of diphtheria toxoid vaccines - extended study: correlation of serology with in vivo toxin neutralisation.

Phase I of BSP034 collaborative study was extended in two laboratories to include correlation of serology with in vivo toxin neutralisation test (TNT) using 2 separate sets of 20 serum pools, produced in-house. The study investigated the extent to which the in vitro methods for diphtheria antibodies, Vero cell assay and diphtheria enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay for diphtheria antitoxin (D-ELISA), can detect neutralising antibodies by comparison with TNT in guinea pigs. The study was also performed to compare the antibody neutralising potency obtained in relation to guinea pig (GP) or equine (DI) antitoxin standard. In addition, the study provided an opportunity to compare ELISA for tetanus antitoxin (T-ELISA) and TNT assay for detection of anti-tetanus antibodies, from the same set of serum pools. The data obtained show that antitoxin potency obtained by Vero cell assay, D-ELISA and T-ELISA using the same GP standard, highly correlated with neutralising potency as determined in respective TNT assays. Vero cell assay with DI provided estimates that also correlated with neutralising potency, but were of significantly lower titre. Since reference to DI standard is widely used in serodiagnosis, as well as in clinical studies where diphtheria antitoxin titres obtained in the Vero cell method are taken as surrogate markers for vaccine efficacy, it should be investigated if a similar difference is also observed for human serology.

Quantitative determination of saccharide in Haemophilus influenzae type b glycoconjugate vaccines, alone and in combination with DPT, by use of high-performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection.

The stability and integrity of glycoconjugate vaccines requires determination of the total saccharide and quantification of the unbound or free saccharide present. The traditional assay for Hib conjugates, based on colorimetric determination of ribose, has been much improved by the use of base hydrolysis and analysis of the Hib subunit generated using high-performance anion-exchange chromatography with pulsed amperometric detection (HPAEC-PAD). The production of this subunit was confirmed by NMR analysis. However, quantification of free Hib saccharide using this method was not possible in the combination vaccines evaluated due to interferences emanating from DPT. Thus a method based on TFA hydrolysis followed by the chromatographic separation and quantification of ribitol on a CarboPac MA1 column was developed. The method is selective, and with the use of ED40 electrode, requires only nanomole amounts for the chromatographic step, thereby ensuring that free saccharide can be monitored accurately in the formulated Hib-CRM vaccine alone and when in combination with other vaccines.

Validation of assays for use with combination vaccines.

A general methodology is presented for the validation of assays used for testing combination vaccines. The presentation is detailed and technical as our intention is to address challenges that we have encountered in the design and statistical analysis of assay validation studies. There are several noteworthy features which render the approach particularly useful in practice. It employs a statistical experimental design approach to the investigation of assay ruggedness with respect to manufacturing variability; it makes use of the assay variability results to determine the level of test-run replication necessary to achieve precision compatible with the product specifications; and, it provides a generic approach to assay validation. With combination vaccines, as with other pharmaceuticals, the analytical methods for release and stability must be validated early in the development programme Several things, though, distinguish this task with combination vaccines: (1) assays are typically pre-existing and often have been validated for use with an established sample matrix, e.g. a monovalent formulation; (2) sample matrices are complex and therefore more subject to manufacturing variability and more likely to cause assay interferences; and (3) the analytical workload is considerable due to the number of antigens. The methodology presented here was developed jointly by Merck Research Laboratories (West Point, PA) and Pasteur Mérieux Connaught, Inc. (Swiftwater, PA). Many of the issues discussed here have application outside of combination vaccines and are common features of all assay validations.

Comparison of in vivo and in vitro methods for determining unitage of diphtheria antitoxin in adsorbed diphtheria-tetanus (DT) and diphtheria-tetanus-pertussis (DTP) vaccines.

In view of the current efforts to find a reliable in vitro method which can suitably act as an alternative for determining the potency of the diphtheria component in a combined vaccine, we have analysed experimental batches by the method proposed by WHO [1] i.e. challenge method in guinea pigs. The same batches were also analysed by the alternative antibody induction method as suggested in the Indian Pharmacopoeia (I.P.) [2] which is similar to the old method suggested in the British Pharmacopoeia (B.P.) 1973. As per I.P. the initial part of raising the antibodies remains unaltered but the actual titration of diphtheria antitoxin from the immunised guinea pigs was performed by using the following in vitro methods: a) indirect haemagglutination test using human "O" red blood cells to coat diphtheria toxoid using chromic chloride as the coupling agent [3]; b) toxin neutralisation test using Vero cells [4]; c) a double diffusion technique in agar gel for titration of diphtheria antitoxin [5]. Our findings show clearly that the results of two in vivo methods i.e. Challenge Test, Alternative I.P. Method and the above-mentioned three in vitro methods are comparable and would certainly reduce the number of animals required by making a combination of in vivo and in vitro techniques to give us an assessment of the potency of the vaccine to be tested.

Potency tests of diphtheria, tetanus and combined vaccines. Suggestion for a simplified potency assay.

Two diphtheria-tetanus vaccines (DT), adsorbed to either aluminium hydroxide or calcium phosphate but identical with respect to toxoid origin and amounts, were compared in full potency assays in mice according to the European Pharmacopoeia (EP) and in a reduced potency assay in guinea-pigs using a double dose immunization schedule. The efficacy of the vaccines was compared in a clinical trial with revaccination of 313 military recruits. The reduced potency assay gave a better reflection of the efficacy of the two vaccines in humans than the required assays of the EP. For release of combined, final vaccine formulations the reduced potency assay suggested will reduce the number of animals in quality control.